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In recent times poverty alleviation has become a very
fashionable activity in development discourse, research
and action. The "establishment" - i.e. national
and international power and professional structures
- view of poverty puts the "poor" under an
externally conceived "poverty line" and professes
to want to get them above this line by giving them some
kind of a "subsistence kit". Years of effort
pretensions and discourses by the establishments have
done little toward promoting the professed objective.
Their statistics sometimes show some nominal progress,
but this statistics itself is blissfully ignorant of
the unfolding reality of life: new threats to the subsistence
of people arising out of drastic decline in the quality
of certain vital requisites for existence, some of which
are included in the "subsistence kit" only
very shoddily and some are totally ignored, today dominate
the character of this reality. It is not in dispute
that services like medical care, education, law and
order and legal redress of inhuman oppression of many
kinds, vital for living with minimum honour and security
of life, body and property, have declined drastically
in quality in recent years, implying in effect a fall
in real incomes of people in terms of their "purchasing
power" vis-a-vis these very essential services
for subsistence. This alone prompts one to wonder whether
there is a difference between "poverty watchers"
and human beings! But looking beyond subsistence one
has more reason to feel uneasy with the conventional
treatment of the question of poverty.
Some quarters are conceptualizing poverty in terms
of a "one-dollar-a-day" line - a shabby conception
that does not merit discussion. The "poor"
themselves have their own conception of what they lack
and need most, about which poverty watchers seem to
be blissfully ignorant: when more caring researchers
have gone and asked the "poor" about their
criteria for "poverty" and "ill-being":
they have presented elements like
Ø lacking land,
livestock, farm equipment, grinding mills etc.,
Ø bad housing,
Ø means to decently
bury their dead,
Ø having to accept
demeaning or low-status work,
Ø means to face
crisis,
Ø and some such
others elements.1
Other respondents might perhaps add, as necessities
for simply physical subsistence in specific circumstances,
elements like
Ø more serious
medical care;
Ø old-age security;
Ø entitlement
for women to safe transportation to and back from
work-place;
Ø means to buy
law-and-order for security of life honour and property,
and to buy justice when violated;
Ø and such other
obviously essential needs for subsistence.
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However, perhaps more puzzling is the preoccupation
of poverty watchers with means of physical subsistence
alone however inadequate the criteria are in their own
terms, as if people (the "poor") are "livestock"
to be kept alive to produce milk eggs and flesh for
the "non-poor". As if they are not the same
breed as we ourselves are, human as we
call ourselves!
The humans of pre-historic days, who were unquestionably
"poor" by any standard of today, are known
to have excelled in some of the fine arts (e.g. as evidenced
by their arts on the cave walls and rock shelters) despite
heavy preoccupation for physical subsistence. And to
build modern life from out of the caves the human has
shown not only his/her urge for coming out of the pressure
for physical subsistence but also to continue to express
oneself creatively and aesthetically - undoubtedly
every significant human step 'forward' toward modern
civilization has been a step not only to meet their
needs for physical subsistence and move beyond this
toward advanced consumerism but also to do all this
with creativity and taste. At the same time, the pursuit
of knowledge, both to understand "who I
am" and to apply knowledge in creative acts,
have also been a constant pursuit of humans. This is
what differentiates the homo sepean from other
species2. To say only
the obvious, in order to subsist as a human being
one's brain (if not the "heart" as a transcendental
entity) needs nourishment and 'entitlements' as much
as one's brawns, for 'finer' pursuits like knowledge,
beauty and creativity.
And as the cave dwellers have demonstrated, there
is no linear progression in concentration of human activity
from physical to the 'finer' aspects of subsistence
- human activity in all ages has embraced both simultaneously,
often attending to both in the same activity organically
satisfying both the urges together, and often trading
off the former for the latter according to unstandardized
patterns of personal choices even under conditions of
physical or material duress, e.g. deliberately sacrificing
needed calories or medical treatment to devote scarce
time and resources for pursuit of the finer urges of
life. And who are we, intellectuals economists
or whoever, to dictate that people should first satisfy
the 'basic material needs' neglecting the 'basic human
needs' to be attended later (or not to be attended at
all, for we seem to be satisfied if all the "poor"
are merely brought above a "poverty line"
dictated by the needs primarily of material subsistence
and eager to certify that, therefore, very impressive
'development' has taken place!).
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A notion of "hard core poor" has also become
very popular among poverty watchers. This is identified
with persons acutely struggling for sheer physical survival.
The need for urgent action to uplift such persons is
undeniable. But even such persons are also homo sepeans,
and there is a question of what Amartya Sen has called
choice of the "mode of life" to which they
should be entitled, not just entitlement to the basic
means of physical survival. The poverty of a domestic
sweeper crouching and creeping on the floor to sweep
the dust fallen from the elite's shoes, or a rickshaw
puller wasting his life dragging other people with his
leg muscles, can never be alleviated by merely raising
his/her income - there remains the question of a life
of dignity and pursuit of the human urges of existence
to which even the "hard core poor" must be
entitled and simultaneously, rather than as an
entitlement for a "later stage of their lives",
perhaps when the economy has "developed" sufficiently!
In asserting this we may refer to a dialogue one of
us once had with a group of landless rural labourers
about how a drowning person not knowing how to swim
may be helped3. The
need for someone helping him/her out of water cannot
be in dispute; but there are different ways of rescuing
such a "hardest core case" - e.g. by lifting
her out of water like a log, versus having her place
one hand on the back of the rescuer and swim to shore
with the other hand so that she has a role of her own
in solving her problem. In the said dialogue there was
a clear assertion from the "poor" that no
one likes to be helped by others like a log, and even
in dire distress every human being wants the dignity
of participating in the process of his/her own
rescue or rehabilitation The urge to participate, and
in that process to advance in knowledge culture and
creativity to express and fulfil oneself in whatever
be one's calling or situation, is a basic urge of all
humans however "poor" one may be. And this
urge, as we have said above, is not a "second or
third phase urge" - it is an urge that is co-existent
with the urge to survive physically. And no external
agent is entitled to prioritize these urges for anybody.
And finally, having built the foundation of human civilization
the prehistoric cave-dweller who undoubtedly struggled
to survive and died without adequate medical care has
perhaps earned the courtesy by his/her creative and
aesthetic pursuits to be asked of the minimum survival
needs for his/her human soul as part of the measure
of "hard core" poverty.
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dialectical
and holistic character of human needs
Social scientists trained only in the positivist tradition
see things as either black or white. But reality
is dialectical, embodying opposites as co-existing dualities,
of which at any time one face or a particular synthesis
of the opposites may be dominant, and this may change
in response to specific circumstances or stimuli. The
mix of material and human needs to which a person gives
priority at any level of income and entitlements varies
from person to person, community to community, circumstances
to circumstances, historic age to historical age. Among
the "poor" there exist beggars without much
visible by way of a sense of dignity; there also exist
persons who would eat from the garbage trash on the
street but not beg, or steal or commit dacoitry to survive
- certainly more dignified (also challenging their creativity!)
than begging. There exist "poor" communities
who take their poverty as a way of life in its evolution
as it was for the ancient cave dwellers, engaging in
pursuits for physical as well as finer pursuits according
to circumstances and their own priorities, and proud
of themselves as a people notwithstanding their acute
struggle for life (like the adivasis in the Bhoomi
Sena movement in Maharastra, India4
or the tepitans of Mexico5.
Many are influenced in their view of themselves by the
dazzle of elite life around them and the gaze
of the elite and poverty-watchers upon them; but the
duality remains. And the opposite - a sense of self-pride
and creative engagement to show what stuff they are
made of notwithstanding their material poverty, are
known to have been rekindled by appropriate stimuli6.
Human needs and urges, furthermore, are holistic
and not cartesian, simultaneously and organically
embracing many dimensions both quantitative and qualitative.
For both these reasons - dialectical and holistic character
of human needs - notions of poverty and of poverty
alleviation need to be reconceptualized if they
are to serve and fulfil people and not master over them
for the benefit primarily of the "masters",
and also to get the best out of the people living, as
they will live for long times to come, their lives of
"poverty" in the modern world. And in the
final analysis the conception must be that of the people
themselves and not elite patrons/well-wishers of the
people, for any social conception bestows power
to the conceiver that may be misused.
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poverty
as denial of share of civilization
"the
humanness of human beings is not in just subsisting7
... civilization consists of transcending mere subsistence."
-
Rabindranath Tagore (Letters from Russia)
It is still legitimate to present one's own conception
as a contribution to a social dialogue toward articulation
of such a notion of profound social import. In doing
this one may note, first, that the notion of poverty
did not exist prior to differentiation of societies
into the "rich" and the "poor".
Hence poverty is a concept relative to affluence, and
the "poor" relative to the "rich",
as part of a co-existing duality. Indeed, one way to
alleviate poverty would be to alleviate (relative) affluence.
This, indeed, is ordained in the Constitution of
Bangladesh as one of its fundamental principles
by way of an egalitarian society, which I understand
the affluent of the country who are ruling it have chosen
to ignore.
The problem of poverty arises in this country in the
first instance from out of this defiance within the
society of its constitutional principle of egalitarianism.
"Globalization" has accentuated this problem
further by bringing the whole world of affluence in
constant full view of the "poor". The notion
of poverty, from the point of view of those viewers
of global affluence who do not have a right to touch
it, must be derived from a sense they naturally develop
of wanting a legitimate share of this affluence - i.e.
a share of 'modern civilization' which is claimed to
be represented by this affluence. A concern of the
elite for poverty alleviation cannot be accepted as
a mere 'humanitarian' pretence to see the "poor"
somehow subsist with the elite chasing the moon; nor
can "poverty alleviation" in such a "livestock"
sense serve as a "safety net" against social
unrest which is often aspired, with the 'animal' somehow
helped to subsist and its surplus taken away to help
in the elite's moon chase.
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A cursory look at household expenditure and behaviour
patterns of people with low incomes in the neighbourhood
or even below of the "poverty line" drawn
by poverty watchers will reveal two different types
of 'crime' by the "poor" in their bid to have
a share of modern civilization.
One type of 'crime' is "stealing" from
the "subsistence kit" that poverty watchers
are granting the "poor" - it will be seen
that these people steal money from this kit and
spend it for items of "unauthorized" consumption
- e.g. an elegant wearing outfit to visit friends and
neighbours and receive guests; some little jewelry (at
least imitation bangles); a watch and a radio if not
a TV set; a second hand harmonium to help one's daughter
learn Nazrul sangeet, a broken cricket bat to bid for
inclusion in the World Cup team; family and social hospitality;
participation in religious and social festivities; occasionally
going to a movie or "jatra"; travel to visit
relatives and even indulging in some sight seeing; buy
and read books beyond the meagre entitlement provided
in the subsistence kit for "education"; dowry
for daughter's marriage (however unethical the practice
is); protection of life property and honour; the consideration
the helpless mother seeks to buy from the invading mastans
to take her daughter "one at a time because she
is only ten"8;
etc.
With lack of adequate means such 'criminal action'
by otherwise honest people, of stealing from the "subsistence
kit" to pay for "unauthorized consumption"
results variously in sacrificing some or other of the
"authorized consumption" items and/or incurring
heavy debt and eventually losing assets in an attempt
to simultaneously meet both. Obviously, if such 'honest
thieves' are to be really helped to consume the full
quota of calories etc. provided for them in the "subsistence
kit" they need to be given a larger allowance to
provide for the unauthorized "leakage" therefrom.
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Those who do not see the reason for remaining 'honest'
under these circumstances indulge in criminal action
of the second type, i.e. outright crimes by way of
violence upon others to claim their share of the
affluence they see around them and on the TV screen
thanks to modern technology, criminal action that we
know has infected even the law-and-order services of
the day. While human consumption urges may know no bounds
and criminal action results from a desire to chase the
moon as many among the affluent are indulging in, it
may be suggested that the urge to have a reasonable
share of modern civilization that is staring in one's
eyes today as never before, motivates many-a-person
to turn into a hijacker to snatch the purse or jewelry
of a passer-by at dagger or gun-point.
We suggest that the concept of poverty as a humane
as well as 'social safety net' notion be derived from
a notion of giving to all a share of modern civilization
instead of professing merely to condemn people to live
the unhuman lives of livestock.
In a notional sense such a humane concept of poverty
was implicitly articulated long ago by Rabindranath
Tagore, who equated the very notion of development with
every person progressively sharing not just (physical)
subsistence but also the 'full glory of humanhood',
in the following words:
"One sign of a nation advancing in the road
to development is that the insignificance of every person
of that nation is progressively disappearing. To the
extent possible everyone will gain the right to claim
the full glory of humanhood. Everyone there will live
in decent house, get decent education, eat well, clothe
well, will be protected from diseases, and will have
sufficient leisure and individuality. (Kalantar,
Collected Works of Tagore, Vol 24, pp 313-14).
The difference between this notion of 'decent' living,
and 'subsistence' ("insignificant") living,
with which poverty watchers are preoccupied, is immediate.
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How does one measure 'decent' education and eating
and clothing "well"? Can a "poverty line"
be drawn separating 'decency' or 'significant living'
from 'insignificance' ? It will perhaps be fruitless
to enter into a debate on whether one should be entitled
to graduate as a "non-poor", to the collected
works of Shakespeare and Tagore or a recreation trip
to Rangamati; nor should it be desirable to seek to
prescribe a precise minimum consumption kit for everybody
denying one the right to choose from alternatives. But
there can be a social consensus through social discourse
on the broad level of aggregate income one should be
entitled to as a minimum reasonable share of modern
civilization, leaving the choices of specific directions
of spending the income to the person concerned. The
elite already have such a notion about themselves for
income-tax purposes, in the tax-exempt income
granted by the Finance Minister, who by thus granting
obviously acknowledges that it is difficult for an elite
to live below this line or unfair to ask one to do so.
This "poverty-line for the elite" is
also periodically reviewed and moved upward, following
discourses between insiders and outsiders in the government/parliament
among the elite, keeping in view the moving cost of
living and world standard of elite consumption. The
same Finance Minister has a different "poverty-line"
for the non-elite. But should these be different? On
what grounds? Shouldn't the tax-exempt income then be
adopted as the "poverty-line" for all classes
since the line already exists as a collective articulation
of the vanguards of society as to the minimum income
needs of its citizens? And shouldn't political parties
seeking people's votes for state power be expected to
vie with each other in proposing in their election manifestoes
modification of this "poverty-line" for all
classes of the society in line with rising global standard
of consumption?9,10
With the best of intentions and efforts it will, of
course, remain a long way for the general population
of the society to reach anywhere near such a "human
poverty line". (It remains a long way, of course,
for the bulk of them to reach the "livestock"
line for that matter.) But the goal will be a more worthy
one to be set and to thrive for as a very concept of
"development"(c.f. Tagore quoted above) in
order for "development" to have a humane meaning
for the general populace of the society. In particular
in the age of "globalization" that we are
being asked to be so excited about, the "livestock"
poverty-line is consistent only with an ideology of
the elite of society (and foreign investors) wanting
to exploit the cheap labour of the masses keeping them
as it envisages at a bare physical subsistence level,
thus giving an altogether perverse, inhuman, meaning
of "globalization".
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One may surmise that once all the people in a society
are thus given a share of civilization, which itself
will shift upward as civilization (world standards of
consumption and leisure) progresses, as the tax-exemption
income limit does, 'crimes' of both the above kinds
- i.e. stealing one's own resources away from "prescribed"
to "unprescribed" consumption, and violence
upon others for augmenting one's entitlements - will
be reduced considerably. The 'social safety net' concept
will also then become redundant.
However, for most societies this will take a long time
to attain, and millions of "poor" will live
and die "poor" in the meanwhile. There will,
therefore, remain a serious question of keeping these
people 'satisfied' with their lives doomed to poverty,
with a promise that may be fulfilled only by their descendants
in some uncertain future. How can "criminal activities"
of either of the above two kinds be minimized without
increasing pressure on the law-and-order machinery which
itself is a drain of scarce resources of society and
also subject to infection by the same virus? The answer,
I suggest, lies not in promises but in the people
having a role in their lives that may fulfil them even
in their poverty.
Some instances of such roles in the lives of the "poor"are:
-
numerous initiatives by the peasantry in Bangladesh
to moblize themselves and advance their lives after
independence. Of these the most outstanding was
the self-reliance movement in 1973-74 in 60 villages
in the district of Rangpur, committed to collective
effort to promote village development rejecting
all outside material assistance, addressing first
the needs of their poorest, and rejecting even relief
and the gruel kitchen during the 1974 flood and
famine which hit this district the hardest.
-
the tepitans of Mexico, who stiffened and
rejected the term "poor" used by an western
visitor to characterize them who was gazing down
at their impressive self-mobilization to stand up
from the ravages of an earthquake, and called themselves
"not poor, but (proud) tepitans" (Sachs,
loc cit);
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-
the profoundly enlightening experience one of
the authors of this paper gained when he visited
the work of ORAP11
in Matabeleland, Zimbabwe in 1987 and told the mobilized
villagers that they were not poor but very rich
in showing the world the path to development (Rahman
1987): he was profusely thanked by a villager involved
in the movement "for telling us that we
are not poor", as if a burden had been
lifted from his broad shoulders which had been aching
with the indignity of being labelled as "poor"
as if he was someone "inferior" despite
his proud role in community self-development.
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the people of Barogram near Dhaka who seem doomed
to live with unspeakably polluted water flowing
through their habitat with all the wastes of the
metropolis which is draining them of their lives,
with no solution to the problem in the cards in
the lifetime of most of them. There is no point
in promising "poverty-alleviation" to
these people who have to accept their life as a
"cursed" or "challenging" one
depending on how one stands up and faces it. Their
challenge is to seek a meaning in their fated life
standing by each other in solidarity, facing the
terrible odds of their life collectively, thus showing
their worth as humans and dying gloriously fighting
against the odds leaving their imprint on the pages
of Bangladesh history to inspire others to face
life's odds with the same human spirit and valour.
Such a role in advancing or living their hard lives
gallantly is "poverty alleviation" by itself,
in terms both of progress when possible according to
people's own priorities, and of enhancing their lives
by way of tackling their problems in communal solidarity
thus fulfilling themselves in creative engagement
as human beings showing what stuff they are made
of. Even in dire material poverty, and for that matter
in any situation one may be placed in life (except in
isolated prison cells) this fulfillment is possible
if people have the space and power to become the
principal actors in their own lives. And notwithstanding
the pace at which this advances their material lives
- for who are we to dictate others' choices - shouldn't
such self-engagement be the most strategic element in
a social thrust for poverty alleviation according to
priorities by the people themselves?
This does not negate the role of others to assist in
the people's own efforts to enhance the quality of
their life with their own priorities, which is what
poverty alleviation must mean. On the contrary, those
with structural power, resources, access to relevant
knowledge or possessing relevant expertise have an immense
lot to contribute toward empowering and assisting people,
as friends and not as masters, as 'equals' and not 'superiors',
to enhance their lives as principal actors.
eradication
of 'poverty of values'
In assisting for enhancement of people's lives care
need to be taken to see that people's values are also
enhanced toward desirable norms of civilized social
life such as democracy, care for fellow humans, freedom
of individuals within the framework of reciprocal rights,
gender equality, rights of children, abuse of power
and privileges, equity and social justice in sharing
social wealth, submission to socially or communally
determined procedures of law and justice, relation with
nature and environment etc. (see section 2, dream four,
and also the Ballarat address of one of the authors12).
The ordinary people have some of these values in their
indigenous culture; some - e.g. gender equality and
child rights - they do not or may not have in desirable
measures. This, of course, applies to the elite as well,
and poverty alleviating work must constantly strive
to raise social awareness to eradicate such 'poverty
of values'.
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The initiators of RIB have dreams/visions (hereafter
'dreams') of their own on the work of RIB. These dreams
which will guide the work of RIB, are presented below:
Background:
Experience in working in a poverty-alleviation research
programme in Bangladesh indicates that:
| 1. |
there is a very limited research community in
Bangladesh with the requisite background and expertise;
|
| 2. |
those who have the know-how are much sought after
by donor governments/ agencies and are often engaged
by them; |
| 3. |
even if they undertake socially relevant research
on their own or for others, their knowledge of the
situation of, or interest in, or interaction with,
the poor are limited; |
| 4. |
most of them undertake research as a job/earning
opportunity and not because of any vision or passion; |
| 5. |
since the demands for the research do not originate
from the intended beneficiaries, their outputs often
end up being unutilizable; |
| 6. |
even where a research generates good output, at
least in terms of knowledge creation, dissemination
is often poor; |
| 7. |
when we advertised for research proposals in the
Bengali newspapers, we received a large number of
them from people who did not fit the conventional
definition of a researcher but were more attuned
to the ground and had good ideas for research, though
lacking in proper presentation or articulation.
I used to call them barefoot researchers.
I felt here was a fertile ground or us to sow the
seeds for future researchers. |
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Dream:
RIB contributes to filling some of the gaps or removing
some of the deficiencies mentioned above. Towards that
goal, RIB tries to do the following:
One, develop an alternative research community in Bangladesh.
These include university students who do not have the
opportunity or means to obtain a good background in
research, and others who may not even have much formal
education but are socially conscious and could be good
candidates for training/capacity building as researchers.
RIB undertakes an effort to identify such persons and
provide them with support/opportunities to develop as
researchers. As for non-university candidates, RIB seeks
to establish partnership arrangements with local journalists,
activists and social workers throughout Bangladesh to
identify them. Through this method RIB also tries to
decentralize its activities as much as possible. Thus
some key efforts in RIB are devoted to capacity building
and spreading RIB's contacts and activities throughout
the country on a decentralized basis.
Two, RIB plays a coordinating role among the various
research/developmental agencies engaged in efforts towards
poverty alleviation in Bangladesh, by way of bringing
them together on important issues, providing them a
neutral platform, to share knowledge and ideas, to identify
respective niches, to develop mutual interest in co-operation,
to avoid duplication, to identify research areas, prospective
researchers or candidates for training etc.
Three, RIB tries to bring government agencies engaged
in policy making and implementing governmental programmes
into the fold of research activities in the country
or at least make them more research oriented. Government
officials could themselves make demands on the research
community to undertake research in areas where they
see a need. RIB tries to develop a partnership relationship
with them.
Four, RIB initiates more research into the causes of
poverty, the socio-economic relationships that create
poverty and help perpetuate them. The results are then
utilized in sensitizing the public and creating mass
awareness. RIB develops an advocacy mechanism through
partnership with others.
Five, RIB initiates more research activities to identify
areas of law which contribute to, create, and/or sustain
poverty, and on needed legal support to poverty groups.
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Background:
The traditional view of development planning relied
on research support in terms of economic objectives
such as growth with equity or growth alone. Human dimensions
of development were largely ignored. In recent times,
the philosophy of development has started focus on human
development. The approach is to shift from "objectifying"
people to focus on the need to recognize human dignity
irrespective of economic status or class. The vision
for development now being promoted centre on sustainable
human development with focus on good governance and
poverty alleviation. It is no longer measured only in
terms of less than a dollar a day or calorie intake.
The non-income dimensions of poverty encompasses such
areas as education, health, nutrition and access to
other public goods such as transport and communication
and equality in treatment in all matters that affect
the life of a citizen.
Dream:
Modes of knowledge production
RIB tries to effect a shift from the conventional modes
of knowledge production in isolation of the society
that is to benefit from them. These modes are generally
represented by expatriate consultant-dominated reports
for policy planning and programme and project development
with some input from local experts. It is also exemplified
by academic research.
The alternative mode which RIB seeks to support is collaborative
research involving various stakeholders including non-researchers.
The key researcher is seen as a participant observer
rather than the influencing actor in the process. The
focus is upon identifying and harmonizing the needs
at the national level and those of the users to avoid
conflict because national level policy needs are often
dominated by political considerations which influence
agenda for action.
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Addressing knowledge gaps
RIB dreams of helping create conditions that conduce
to the growth of a just and equitable society with Man
(includes Women) as the centerpiece and with Nature
(environment) as a loving partner. This is sought to
be done through reducing knowledge gaps that exist in
multiple areas:
-
sustainable natural resources in a situation of
declining availability of land and water;
-
sustainable rural and urban livelihood for the
disadvantaged;
-
human rights guaranteed by the Constitution and
other international conventions/treaties;
-
in-country capacity building of individuals, institutions
and groups to translate research results into action;
-
the need for demand-driven research that promote
dignity of individuals and promote social cohesion;
-
structure and process that impede and sustain poverty;
-
usefulness of indigenous and cost-effective technology
and its application.
RIB supports the following kinds of research:
-
A broader conceptualization and deeper analysis
of poverty alleviation in Bangladesh. Up to
now research on poverty alleviation has been quite
narrowly focused, e.g. poverty estimates, whether
poverty is declining by using different income/nutrition
estimates, and evaluation of some targeted programs.
The debates surrounding poverty have been led by
economists around issues of measurements, data,
and effectiveness of micro credit. After years of
this narrow research RIB considers it useful to
encourage research on poverty alleviation by people
from other disciplines or by multi-disciplinary
research teams to debate what poverty really means,
its various dimensions and what poverty alleviation
will entail in the Bangladesh context, i.e., what
are the different actions that need to be taken.
Also, under-researched is the issue of gender (or
for that matter minority status due to ethnicity
and religion) in poverty to which RIB gives special
attention.
-
Analysis of how poverty may impact on social
and political behavior. Recently with resurgent
interest on terrorism in the USA there has been
much debate as to whether or not poverty breeds
violence, terrorism, etc. RIB initiates investigation
on what is really causing increase in social and
political violence in Bangladesh. How would poverty
alleviation fit into this debate? What is the economic
basis of our social and political behavior?
-
Investigation of whether and how rise in religious
fundamentalism or extremist position may be related
to poverty. We do not have good exploration
of the links between religious fundamentalism and
its programmes and with poverty and poverty alleviation.
We know that religious groups also have their pro-poor
programmess which may be compared with those of
the non-religious NGOs. RIB initiates research in
this direction.
-
Synthesis of lessons learnt from the various
activities of NGOs and Grameen Bank as to what worked,
what were the gaps and the challenges ahead.
RIB supports the start of some initiatives to improve
the quality of research in Bangladesh, particularly
deeper analysis of data, looking into causalities, linking
various levels and forces, etc. Right now most of the
research projects report simply on raw data, without
proper analysis as to what the data reveal or conceal.
RIB also initiates web-based networking with different
groups interested in Bangladesh studies.
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RIB recognizes Bangladesh in all its diversity. Diversities
are enhanced because of the lack of a unified and single
national market. Thus many issues like development,
governance, indigenous technology, even nature of poverty
and price or wage structures are prone to regional variation.
Future research should address these variations. e.g.
problems of governing khas land distribution would be
different in an area ecologically threatened by shrimp
cultivation, from an area subject to slash and burn
agriculture or from an area where the occupation of
char lands are now controlled by modern day lathials
carrying AK 47s.
Economically deprived people also do not form a monolithic
unit. Reasons for their deprivation as much as the nature
of such deprivation may stem from factors such as ethnicity,
religion, sexuality and these should be seen both as
cultural constructions as well as in their historical
specificity. For example violence against a certain
section of the population takes place not only due to
economic vulnerabilities e.g. for possession of land,
wealth and other resources, but also because memories
of such violence/oppression have been constituted in
the individual and collective consciousness of people
and communities. Thus historical research is currently
not strong in the research agenda on poverty alleviation,
and RIB gives special focus on this in its work.
Being a deltoid region, Bangladesh is a country continuously
in flux. Not only is the land being continuously and
simultaneously formed and unformed due to shifting rivers,
its borders too defy rigid definition. Hence annual
flooding can make farce of the attempt to construct
barbed wire fences to keep out strangers as much as
it can create a surrealist situation where people from
East and West Bengal are forced to take shelter in a
village school within Bangladeshi territory. Such porous
borders are a constant source of worry for national
policymakers, precisely because common people who are
often smugglers and arms traffickers, celebrate them.
The problem is, however, compounded by policymakers
using age-old paradigms of national security and national
development in an increasingly globalizing world.
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Globalization itself has brought both with it both ills
and blessings. Because of globalization women in urban
and semi urban areas can get two meals a day instead
of the usual one or half. But also because of globalisation
women and children are being abandoned by their husbands
who do not have any agricultural land to plough since
they are being taken over by shrimp farmers. The complexities
are immense. RIB initiates an agenda with realistic
activities which challenges policymakers to be more
adventurous, dynamic and creative.
The social history of Bangladesh is marked by a spirit
of protest and the language of resistance. A popular
urge for democracy, justice and freedom have been the
key words. Many have interpreted these in a wider sense,
i.e.
|
(1)
|
not only democracy because Bangalis could not
access established power, but for a wider participation
in state, community and family, which would entail
respect for rights and responsibilities for honouring
the rights of others.
|
|
(2)
|
justice not only as an overturning of power to
enable the oppressed to become oppressors, but
a just state and society that allows space for
diversity, for survival, for quality of life and
for freedoms. Justice is broader than a legal
disposition.
|
|
(3)
|
freedom entails opportunities for economic, social,
political and personal choice in expressing beliefs,
in promoting personal and political relations,
that do not inflict controls on others, but allow
space to individuals and groups.
|
RIB pursues these notions of democracy, justice and freedom
in analyzing and examining the situation in Bangladesh.
The criteria of individual and collective choice is based
on human rights, and RIB engages in developing :
|
1.
|
concepts of democracy and justice as they have
evolved in political rhetoric and what they mean
to ordinary individuals -women, men and children
of different communities (ethnic or religious/non
religious).
|
|
2.
|
state citizen relations, from the macro to the
grass roots level what in today's speak is referred
to as "governance". This would mean
looking at established norms of protecting knowledge
amongst the powerful, (bureaucrats and others)
rather than build patterns of communication to
encourage participation.
|
|
3.
|
mechanisms for retaining control of state power
at different levels. The role of political and
family ideologies.
|
| 4. |
relations within the community need also to be
analyzed in terms of the powerful/dispossessed-
through mechanisms such as the shalish, or other
local forms of justice, the emergence of gang culture,
and countervailing forces. |
| 5. |
relations within the family -the resistance to
gender equality and women's rights. And women's
struggles as individuals and collectively. Recording
of oral histories. |
| 6. |
new forms of work within globalized markets, division
between contribution of workers and investors, the
emergence of a neo consumerist class and the abeyance
of democratic values. |
| 7. |
threats to the environment from capitalistic development.
|
Many of these issues are the other side of the coin
on poverty debates. The question of poverty cannot be
addressed without looking at democracy, justice and
freedom.
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Dream six
| 1. |
RIB concentrates on research with the active
participation of the disadvantaged people at all
stages, right from the design of the program to
impact assessment. |
| 2. |
RIB prepare an inventory of research done so
far in this area in order to avoid possible duplication
and overlaps. |
| 3. |
RIB programs focus on several issues including
access to productive assets, awareness and solidarity
building, skill development, organisational experience,
empowerment of women ethnicity and poverty, and
specific product, service or technology's significant
potential contribution to the quality of life
of the poor. |
| 4. |
RIB takes up some integrated programs embracing
several of these elements and explore the effects
of the synergy on the over all socio economic
status of the poor and the disadvantaged. |
The purpose of RIB's research is to study and identify
the best ways and means for the poor to improve their
status primarily by using their own knowledge and
tangible resources, supplemented as necessary by externally
provided inputs. RIB does not limit its activities
to pure studies and considers providing assistance
to sponsor concrete development as action research.
RIB closely involves the people in designing and elaborating
the individual program documents.
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Participatory research
RIB promotes participatory research (or PR) and participatory
evaluation of activities, where the people participate
in groups and collective bodies as full subjects of
research by themselves or in partnership with external
researchers and not as objects of research13.
Participatory research, often called "Participatory
Action Research" (PAR), unites with people's
action to advance their lives in a continuous rhythm
of "reflection-action-reflection" which
is, indeed, the rhythm of life itself; for it is distinctive
of homo sepians, before they act, to reflect and inquire,
and after action to review the experience from action
for taking further action.
RIB promotes and assist PAR by bringing animators/facilitators
in the service of PAR who will stimulate and assist
in people's reflections and actions without dictating
or dominating. It assists the people in promoting
their collectively investigated systematic inquiries
(research) and their collective validation so that
such inquiries can claim the status of 'science' -
people's science - at par with professional science14.
This is of the utmost importance not only for its
value in steering people's self-action with systematic
collective intellect, but also to break the assumed
monopoly of elite intellect and the 'means of thinking'
which is serving as a source of elite power over the
people. RIB works to break this monopoly not only
by stimulating and assisting participatory research
but also by assisting in and facilitating the development
of a network (eventually a 'school') of popular research
through forums like people's seminars, conferences,
journals and other publications, study tours, etc.,
so that "demand-led" research, including
action-research, progressively attains higher quality
and status both intellectually as well as in terms
of the size of the popular base that it will represent.
RIB sees literacy itself as integrating alphabet literacy
with 'social literacy' to be sought through PR. For
promoting all this the capacitation of "animator-facilitators'
is one crucial function of RIB. Finally, RIB seeks
to promote solidarity and mutually enriching interaction
between professional science, and popular science
that will be emerging from the above processes, both
to aim at contributing to poverty alleviation in partnership,
rather than vying, with each other.
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Creative Bangladesh
One dreams also of a creative Bangladesh led by popular
creativity that advances their lives as well as presents
a proud persona of the nation to the world. Unfortunately,
recorded history of the country has paid more attention
to the roles of its rulers in advancing or retarding
the country, and of popular struggles more of a 'protest'
and 'demand' nature. Little has been systematically
studied by way of creative actions of the people and
of other quarters ("science for the people")
to advance people's lives. But we know that such actions
have always been taken. Future advancement of the
people can take both inspiration as well as experience
from them, refine them progressively in quality through
PAR, and share them amongst themselves to build broader
collective movements for popular creativity and creativity
of "science for the people". RIB seeks to
contribute in this area by
| 1. |
digging out the history of popular creativity
of Bangladesh and creativity of professionals/social
service agencies in advancing people's self-propelled
lives, by way of 'appropriate' technological and
social mobilizational innovations in different
economic, engineering, scientific, social and
cultural sectors.
|
| 2. |
preparing an inventory of current economic/social/technological/cultural
innovations relevant for advancement of popular
life all over the country, study their respective
promises, spread the news of the promising ones,
stimulate and assist people to apply them, adapt
them, beat them with newer innovations.
|
| 3. |
promoting people-to-people 'technical cooperation'
and networking toward a total social movement
to promote popular creativity for advancing people's
lives in cooperation with people-oriented professional
science and technology.
|
| 4. |
As a research theme hitherto neglected by all
researchers, research on the human urges and conduct
of the homo sepian - creative, search for
beauty, urge for love and care from and for fellow
humans and nature - should contribute to a deeper
understanding of our breed that will, incidentally,
also uplift ourselves.
|
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Integrate education with advancement of popular
life
Immediate post-independence Bangladesh was rich in
student mobilizations to integrate with and assist in
the advancement of popular life15,
in the process becoming more 'educated' themselves in
terms of relevance to people's development. As students
are telling this dreamer, the fire is still burning
and is awaiting stimulus to spread. RIB seeks to provide
the needed stimulus to the extent of its means and ability.
Sharing benefits of globalization
Finally, the ordinary people can be assisted to share
the benefits of globalization as producers and as consumers,
to command the market by forming small producers' cooperatives
for storage, marketing, purchase of inputs and consumer
goods, etc., so as to eliminate the rentier middleman
to retain their surplus themselves. RIB provides technical
support to such activities as pilot projects and assist
'technical cooperation' among the people to spread such
initiatives.
| 1. |
One is pained most when one sees little children
working in the streets and fields, struggling
to survive somehow living subhuman lives. They
do not know at all that they have the right to
live with the same rights as everybody else. RIB
seeks to develop a model for educating children
of the poverty groups without unbearable financial
burden on the parents! Ways are considered for
taking help of these children within the framework
of the family without violating international
standards on child labour - e.g. arrangement to
provide a cart to the family with the children
helping their parents in their use.
|
| 2. |
The number of people in our country taking literacy
classes has increased, but they do not have any
supporting materials. This is a very big problem
for villagers. RIB dreams that newspapers are
handed over to them even after a delay of one
day. It seeks to develop a network through which
unread or unsold newspapers could reach villagers
and young children.
|
| 3. |
Education has become a matter for the rich. The
meritorious students in schools and colleges all
come from well-off families. A principal reason
for this is that our textbooks are so obscure
that one needs private tutors simply to understand
them, and only well off families can afford to
give private tutors to their children. The greater
damage from this is that this destroys the initiative
of the children to pursue studies by themselves.
The prospect of the government producing good
books is little, and RIB seeks to develop other
sources bringing out easy-to-read modern textbooks.
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|
| 4. |
For science education practical classes are most
important. In our country even in the best schools
a farce is going on in the name of practical examinations.
But it is very simple to develop a kit for practical
science classes. It is possible to undertake very
high level tests with totally household implements.
These can be supplied to village schools at a
very low cost with all details explained in workbooks.
In one such push science education can be advanced
substantially. RIB works actively to promote such
science kits for school children.
|
| 5. |
RIB is very optimist about the youth of our country
and believes that they will respond if told that
all have to make some 'sacrifices', and if the
labour of this sacrifice can be used to bring
some changes in our schools this will be a great
thing.
|
| 6. |
Only 17 % of our people get gas in their houses.
The rest cook using wood, and this is slowly denuding
the country of trees. But we have large supply
of solar energy in our country. Water can be very
easily heated considerably (by putting a sheet
of plastic or glass on a tumbler), and if food
is cooked with just hot water instead of cold
water the need for cooking fuel can be reduced
considerably). RIB initiates some research in
this direction and thereafter makes arrangement
to take such knowledge to all.
|
| 7. |
In this era of information technology (IT) it
is necessary to integrate the Bengali language
with IT and take this to the ordinary people.
RIB suppoorts some fundamental research to combine
Bengali language with IT.
|
| 8. |
Each year RIB asks people of the country to give
new ideas for development of the country, and
puts together the worthwhile ideas in book form
each year. People can apply these ideas to do
something new. Those ideas among these which have
practical promise, are tested and developed into
workable models.
|
| 9. |
IT is so important for the future, but this is
for the well-to-do only. Many middle class families
have also purchased computers exhausting all their
resources, but in three to four years these computers
become obsolete. Our country therefore needs "mass
computer centres" where the ordinary people
can use computers at nominal cost. RIB supports
initiatives in this direction.
|
| 10. |
Many superstitions are prevalent in the country.
RIB supports initiatives to prove to the people
that they are wrong or false so that people become
free from such beliefs that inhibit their advancement
in life.
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|
RIB desires to contribute to promoting (a) understanding
of poverty and poverty-related structures and processes
in all their dimensions, and (b) efforts of the disadvantaged
people of Bangladesh to advance their lives with positive
social values, with their own creativity and with non-dominating
support from professionals where helpful. The principal
tool of RIB will be research with participatory action
research as a major component, with corresponding capacity
building networking and social mobilization.
The "Programme for Poverty Research by RIB"
as originally conceived while forming RIB envisages
the following in the direction of RIB activities:
A. "Specific objectives
of RIB's Research Program
| 1. |
to promote and support research on poverty alleviation
based on a notion of poverty from the point of
view of basic "human" needs, including
creative and social needs, and not merely the
need to "subsist";
|
| 2. |
to build and strengthen research capacity and
initiatives of local researchers, voluntary organizations
and movements, including raising their awareness
towards the "human" needs of people;
|
| 3. |
to develop a culture of knowledge-based approach
to development and poverty alleviation built upon
an interactive process of knowledge production,
storage, diffusion and utilization;
|
| 4. |
to promote the development of concepts, tools
and methodologies to analyze and understand the
structures and processes that sustain poverty
and inequality;
|
| 5. |
to promote dialogue and forge linkages between
researchers, end-users, including the low income,
disenfranchised and underprivileged groups at
the grassroots, and other stake holders, including
NGOs and government bodies, in the development
of a research agenda for Bangladesh and the prioritization,
implementation, and evaluation of such research;
|
| 6. |
to support and generate such research which are
more directly action-oriented as well as those
which deal with issues of more conceptual nature;
|
| 7. |
to promote research which is demand-driven and
follows a bottom-up process rather than a top-down
approach; |
| 8. |
to disseminate research findings and undertake
appropriate follow-up action." |
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B. Strategy for development of
RIB's research agenda
In developing its research agenda and following a "bottom-up"
process (i.e. "participatory research") as
envisaged above, "RIB would seek to enter into
arrangements with partner organizations in the non-government
sector as well as with governmental departments. RIB
hopes to attract experts and knowledgeable persons in
the field to participate as members of the PAC (Programme
Advisory Council) or on an ad hoc basis, to help
RIB identify its research agenda. Membership in the
Council is expected to include individuals from key
NGOs and research institutions engaged in socio-economic
development of the country as well as academicians and
activists. In this respect RIB also expects to play
an anchor role and provide an opportunity to the relevant
players in the field to co-ordinate their efforts and
avoid duplication."
Development of a Research
Network in Bangladesh
"RIB could serve as a surrogate institution for
network members by providing them with access to literature,
peer review, quality control, and publication outlets.
It could thus facilitate collegiate interaction, and
broaden the members' local and international contacts,
thereby acting as a knowledge broker. It could facilitate
comparative research through integrated or team research
efforts that are capable of generating data on a wider
scale from a diverse set of circumstances, as well as
address issues missed out in a single research effort.
A research network would enhance realization of scale
economies by undertaking several studies on a common
or related research theme...It will foster specialization
by permitting some members to focus on one type of research
activity and transferring the results to other studies,
thereby avoiding duplication of efforts."
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Capacity Building
"Research activities in Bangladesh relating to
development issues and poverty alleviation have to a
large extent been externally induced. As a result most
of the qualified researchers in the country find themselves
busy with consultancies or are otherwise preoccupied.
There are, of course, other competent researchers whose
potentials are not fully realized since institutional
support to undertake research in the country is generally
inadequate. There is thus a need to build, nurture and
support both capacity (including awareness) building
and capacity utilization. Capacity building would therefore
be a main plank of RIB's efforts to promote poverty
research in Bangladesh."
C.
Ideas for RIB work
Within the framework of the above general direction,
specific ideas for RIB activities as envisaged in the
dreams of RIB's initiators are summarized below. These
ideas are not exclusive but rather indicate the general
'culture' of thinking of RIB initiators on research
for poverty alleviation
Research
| 1. |
inventory of significant research on poverty
and poverty alleviation done so far;
|
| 2. |
poverty as viewed by the people themselves; 'human'
urges of people and their unfulfilment; |
| 3. |
causes of poverty: economic, cultural geographical
and historical, with diversities of poverty situations
and causes; factors such as ethnicity, religion,
sexuality as poverty-determining factors; |
| 4. |
how poverty may impact on social and political
behaviour; roots of growing crimes and savage violence
in Bangladesh; |
| 5. |
relation between poverty and rise of religious
fundamentalism;
|
| 6. |
awareness and solidarity building, skill development,
organizational experience; specific product, service
or technology with significant potential contribution
to the quality of life of the poor; |
| 7. |
empowerment of women, relations within the family
- resistance to gender equality and women's rights;
women's struggles as individuals and collectively; |
| 8. |
globalization and poverty - positive and negative
impact of globalisation on poverty and strategies
to enhance the positives; positive and negative
effects of globalization on women and children; |
| 9. |
threats to the environment from capitalistic development;
sustainable natural resources and sustainable livelihood
of the disadvantaged; |
| 10. |
human rights and promotion of the dignity of individuals;
|
| 11. |
role of law in poverty enhancement and alleviation;
|
| 12. |
state-citizen relations; mechanisms for retaining
control of state power at different levels; wider
participation in state, community and family;
mechanisms for controlling state power at different
levels with specific attention to role of political
and family ideologies; local forms of justice
and countervailing forces;
|
| 13. |
knowledge relations in society : established norms
of protecting knowledge among the powerful rather
than building patterns of communication to encourage
participation; ways of equalizing knowledge relations; |
| 14. |
life of children of low-income groups; problem
of their education;
|
| 15. |
history of popular creativity - technological,
social mobilizational, individual problem solving,
mutual care; current popular creativity; |
| 16. |
ways and means for the people to improve their
status primarily by using their own knowledge and
other resources, supplemented as necessary by externally
provided inputs. |
| 17. |
science and technology in the service of people;
cost-effective methods of literacy; science education;
bringing science to ordinary people; |
| 18. |
indigenous and cost-effective technology and its
application; |
| 19. |
poverty alleviation with enhancement of social
values: democracy, justice and freedom; space
for diversity, for quality of life and for freedom
with respect for reciprocal rights; respect for
all religions and faith in a secular social framework;
a society of mutual care;
|
|
20.
|
lessons learnt from NGO-type work on poverty alleviation. |
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popular groups;
professional researchers;
various stakeholders like government agencies and NGOs;
university students; fresh graduates; local journalists;
activists; social workers;
multi-disciplinary; a shift from the conventional modes
of knowledge production in isolation from the society
which is to benefit them: collaborative research involving
various stakeholders including non-researchers; participant
observation; case studies; dialogical research; participatory
research; oral histories and written personal analyses
and reflections; people's seminars and conferences;
study tours and reporting thereon.
sensitization of public; advocacy; recommendations
to concerned quarters; development of action research
projects.
books and reports; journals and bulletins; website;
newspaper columns; inventories of creative acts and
"appropriate technology"; popular reports
by people - written and audio-visual; people's drama,
pictorial and vocal art as popular means of disseminating
research results.
Action research
assisting people's groups take actions to advance their
lives as pilot projects; assisting small producers strengthen
bargaining power vis-a-vis market and raise their surplus;
assisting technical cooperation and networking among
people's groups; animating and mobilizing students for
service to people particularly in promoting literacy,
science education; assistance to people in the development
and application of "appropriate technology;
action research to improve the condition of children
of low-income families, especially their education;
assistance to improve quality of science education for
children; development of "science kits" and
workbooks for practical science education;
propagating cost-effective and environment-saving ways
of accessing energy for low-income groups;
integrating alphabet literacy with social literacy;
integrating Bengali language with IT;
student mobilization to integrate with and assist in
the advancement of popular life
integrated programs embracing several of these elements
and explore the effects of the synergy on the over all
socio-economic status of the poor and the disadvantaged
closely involving the people in designing and elaborating
the individual program documents;
testing promising new ideas (see "generation of
ideas").
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Training/capacity building
for research; for animation-facilitation in participatory
research;
capacity building of individuals, institutions and groups
to translate research results into action.
Coordination/networking
with research/development agencies concerned with poverty
alleviation;
with relevant government agencies: seek to make them
more research-minded;
with students and youth groups;
with people's groups/communities;
Generation of ideas
Inviting ideas from all sections of society and testing
promising ones through action research.
Come and join RIB or be a partner, not just for
a job, but with a dream to help our people advance their
lives with themselves as the main actors, and thus toward
building a proud Bangladesh. Let us know of your dream
toward whose realization RIB may contribute if it is
possible for it to do so.
*This conceptual section has been written by Md.
Anisur Rahman.
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Foot Notes:
1 The budget and the
Poor, A Study commissioned by IDPAA, Proshika and conducted
by Shamunnay. The University Press Ltd, p 52).
2 "In his experiments
with creating life the Creator suddenly becomes quite
daring when he comes to creating human beings. He does
not confine the freedom of its soul. Outwardly the species
is thrown naked, armourless and weak in all respects
while its soul is freed to fly. Elated by the joy of
this freedom it cries out: 'I shall do the impossible!',
meaning I shall not accept that what has been happening
all the time will continue to happen - what does not
happen will also happen" .
(Tagore,1947 ed. pp 320-321. Present author's translation)
3 recounted in S.Tilakaratna,
The Animator in Participatory Rural Development, International
Labour Office, 1987, Window 1, p 4).
4 See de Silva et al,
"Bhoomi Sena, A Struggle for People's Power",
Development Dialogue, 1979:2.
5 Wolfgang Sachs, "Poor
not Different", Paul Ekins & Manfred Neef (ed.)
. Real Life Economics. Routledge 1992.
6 e.g. the blossoming
of creative development actions in villages in Rangpur
district and in other places in Bangladesh after liberation
with a pride in one's collective identity rather than
self-denigration as "poor"awaiting for poverty
alleviation projects by others, See accounts reported
in Md. Anisur Rahman, Je Agun Jolechhilo, Muktijuddher
Chetonar Shwatosphurto Prakash, Gonoprokashoni 1997.
7 i.e. physically subsisting.
It is the position of this paper that human beings do
not subsist as humans with no finer pursuits. Civilization
then consists of transcending a life where pressure
for physical subsistence is acute. As Tagore went on
to say subsequently, "All the best fruits of civilization
have blossomed in leisure. Hence it is necessary to
preserve leisure in one part of human civilization"
(Letters from Russia, loc.cit.)
8 Abul Momen,"Isn't
going to be the black age of history?" Prothom
Alo 9.2.02
9 The Pakistan Democratic
Party had proposed in its manifesto for the 1970 election
a range of 10:1 for income disparities within the nation.
This had an implicit "poverty-line" in relation
to the highest income in the society.
10 Such a "poverty-line"
also lends itself to international comparison of persons
below or above the line specific to each country giving
its income tax exception limit.
11 Organization of Rural
Associations for Progress.
12 Md. Anisur Rahman,"Globalization,
the Emerging New Ideology and Grassroots Action Research".
Keynote address at the 5th World Congress on Action
Learning, Action Research & Process Management and
9th sWorld Congress on Participatory Action Research
at the University of Ballarat, Victoria, Australia,
10-13 September 2000.
13 For literature on
the paradigm of participatory (action) research see
the bibliographies at the end of various chapters in
Fals-Borda, Orlando and Md. Anisur Rahman. Action and
Knowledge, Breaking the Monopoly with Participatory
Action Research, Intermediate Technology Publications,
1991, and Rahman, M.A.:People's Self-Development, Perspectives
on Participatory Action Research, A Journey through
Experience, Zed Books and UPL, 1993..
14 the argument has
been elaborated in Rahman, M.A: keynote lecture at the
World Congress of Sociology at Mexico in 1983, on "The
Theory and Practice of Participatory Action Research"
(published in Fals-borda, Orlando, The challenge of
Social Change, Sage Studies in International Sociology
Vol 32, 1985 and also in M.A.Rahman, People's Self-development,
op.cit). Also in Conception of Gono Bishwabidyalay,
Gonoshasthya Kendra, 1999.
15 see Rahman, Je Agun
Jolechhilo ("the fire that lighted), Gono Prokashoni,
1999.
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